6.28.2015

My top 10 diseases

Top 10 diseases:

1.Nodding Syndrome: It is a recent disease which emerged in the 1980s. Little is known about the disease. It is a mentally and physically disabling disease that only affects children, typically between the ages of 5 and 15. It is currently restricted to small regions South Sudan, Tanzania and northern Uganda. Children affected by the disease experience a permanent stunting of growth, this includes growth of the brain. The victims experience pathological nodding seizures which arise as the child begins to eat. It is currently not known what causes the disease but it is believed to be connected to the parasitic worm Onchocerca volvulus, carried by the black fly. 


 
2.Kuru disease: It is an extremely rare and fatal disease which affects the nervous system. It is caused by cannibalism, specifically eating infected brains. It was contracted by the Fore people in the highlands of New Guinea by performing cannibalism during funeral rituals. It is characterised as difficulty walking, swallowing and chewing. Symptoms also include loss of coordination and muscle twitching. The name Kuru translates to "Shiver" or "trembling in fear". It is also known as laughing sickness due to pathological bursts of laughter that the patient displays. 

3.Naegleria Fowleri: Also known as brain eating amoeba, they are found in bodies of fresh water, such as ponds, lakes, rivers and hot springs. It invades the central nervous system via the nose, and migrates to the brain. It feeds on the nerve tissue causing significant necrosis and haemorrhaging. 

4.African Trypanosomiasis: 
Is a parasitic disease also known as the sleeping sickness. The disease initially causes fevers, itchiness, headaches and joint pains. The second stage begins with confusion, poor coordination numbness and trouble sleeping. Invasion of the circulatory and lymphatic systems by the parasites is associated with severe swelling of lymph nodes. The second neurological stage begins when the parasite invades the central nervous system, by passing through the blood brain barrier. Disruption of the sleep cycle is a leading symptom of this stage. Without treatment the disease is invariably fatal, with progressive mental deterioration leading to coma, systemic organ failure and death.   

5.Ebola: It is a viral illness of which the initial symptoms can include a sudden fever, intense weakness, muscle pain and a sore throat. Subsequent stages include: vomiting, diarrhoea and in some cases both internal and external bleeding. The disease infects humans through close contact with infected animals. It then spreads between humans by direct contact with infected blood, bodily fluids or organs, or indirectly through contact with contaminated environments. The virus attacks the lining of blood vessels causing internal organs throughout the body to ooze blood. This includes the lungs therefore resulting in the victim drowning in their own blood.
  

6.HIV virus: It is a virus that can hide in the cells of your body for long periods of time and then attacks a key part of your immune system- your T-cells or CD4 cells which are essential to fight disease. However, HIV hijacks these cells and uses them to replicate, subsequently destroying them. HIV can kill so many of these cells that your body can no longer fight infection, this stage is called AIDS. 

7.Alice In Wonderland Syndrome (AIWS): Also known as Todd's syndrome, is a disorientating neurological condition that affects human perception. It affects the sense of vision, sensation, touch and hearing. A prominent symptom is experiences of altered body image. AIWS also involves perceptual distortions of the size or shape of images. The patient can also lose sense of time, space and velocity. The causes are not known. 

8.FOP: Is a rare genetic disease that affects the connective tissue. The body causes fibrous tissue such as ligament, tendon and muscle, to become ossified, or to change into bone when damaged. This means a fall can cause bone to grow within the muscles and tendons throughout the body. It is the only known disease which causes one type of organ system to turn into an entirely different one. There is no known treatment.


9.Progeria: It is an extremely rare genetic disorder where symptoms associated with ageing are manifested at a very early age. Those born with the disease do not tend to live above the age of 13. It is a genetic condition that occurs as a new mutation, and is rarely inherited, as carriers do not live to reproduce. Symptoms include limited growth, hair loss, and a distinctive appearance. Later the condition causes wrinkled skin, atherosclerosis, kidney failure, loss of eyesight, and cardiovascular problems. People diagnosed with the disease usually have small, fragile bodies, like those of elderly people. It is caused due to abnormal mRNA transcription; this causes an abnormal variant of the prelamin A protein. 


10.Elephantiasis: This disease is caused by parasitic worms which are transmitted by mosquitoes. After bitten by an infected mosquito, the larvae spread. Ultimately, the parasites accumulate in the surrounding tissues. This causes fluid build up which leads to extreme swelling.  






Foetal Circulation - Anatomy and Physiology

Foetal Circulation

Prior to birth the foetus is not capable of respiratory function due to the lungs being full of amniotic fluid, subsequently the foetus relies on the maternal circulation for gas, nutrition and waste exchange. However, the foetal and maternal blood never mix, instead they interfere at the placenta. The foetus' lungs and liver are not functional.

Oxygenated blood travels from the placenta to the foetus via the umbilical vein, within the umbilical cord. Most of it bypasses the liver as the umbilical vein is connected to the caudal vena cava by the ductus venosus. The flow of blood to the heart is controlled by a sphincter. 

Due to the foetus' lungs being dis functional, oxygenated blood does flow through the right ventricle into the pulmonary circulation, but bypasses this route by going from the right atrium straight to the left atrium via the foramen ovale (an opening between the two atria). This enables blood to flow directly into the systemic circulation. The septum secundum directs the majority of the blood entering the right atrium through the foramen ovale into the left atrium. Here it mixes with a small volume of blood returning from the non-functional lungs via the pulmonary veins.

The ductus arteriosus connects the pulmonary artery to the aorta and allows equivalent ventricular function in the foetus. The blood from the right ventricle is pumped to the pulmonary trunk where, due to the high resistance in the collapsed foetal lungs, a larger volume passes through the ductus arteriosus to the caudal aorta. Most of the blood in the aorta is then returned to the placenta for oxygenation through the umbilical arteries. The ductus arteriosus empties blood into the aorta after the artery to the head has branched off thus ensuring that the brain receives well-oxygenated blood. 

The two cardiac shunts I have talked about are:

  • Connection between the right and left atria via the foramen ovale
  • Connection between the pulmonary pulmonary artery and aorta via the ductus arteriosus









Changes at Birth

Important circulatory changes occur at birth due to the replacement of the placenta by the lungs as the organ of respiratory exchange. When an newly born animal takes its first breath, the lungs and pulmonary vessels expand thereby significantly lowering the resistance to blood flow. This subsequently lowers the pressure in the pulmonary artery and the right side of the heart. On the other hand the removal of the placenta causes an increase in the resistance of the systemic circulation and hence an increase in the pressure of the left side of the heart.

With birth a change from parallel flow to a serial one requires the following changes to take place:
  • Gas exchange takes place in lungs in place of the placenta
  • By cutting the umbilical cord, the placental circulation system is switched off
  • The foetal heart shunts become closed
With the activation of breathing the lungs becomes distended, the capillary network dilated and their resistance is reduced drastically so that a rich flow of blood can take place. As a consequence, the pressure in the right atrium sinks in comparison with that of the left one. This pressure turnaround in the atria causes the septum primum to be pressed against the septum secundum and the foramen secundum becomes functionally closed. Additionally, the pressure in the aorta is now higher than that in the pulmonary artery thus decreasing blood flow in the wrong direction. After a few weeks, the shunt via the ductus arteriosus is obliterated. 

























Diseases which result from defects in this process

  • Pre-eclampsia: It is a combination of hypertension and proteinurea. It can potentially progress to a condition called eclampsia, which can cause fits or convulsions. Symptoms include: severe headaches, problems with vision, severe pain just below ribs, heart burn and rapid swelling of face, hands and feat. The exact cause of pre-eclampsia remains unknown but research indicates that genetics and the placenta could be factors in the development of pre-eclampsia. High blood pressure is very dangerous during pregnancy as it may interfere with the placenta's ability to delivery oxygen and nutrients to the foetus. It also can cause abnormal renal and liver functioning. Also, it can cause destruction of red blood cells and platelets which can result in spontaneous bleeding as clotting factors decrease. The high blood pressure can also cause the placenta to begin to pull away from the uterus wall ( placental abruption). This can cause severe bleeding an even death. Also, the mother can experience seizures which puts the foetus at risk of deprived oxygen. 
  • Uterine rupture: It is when the scar from your previous caesarian section tears open. It is possible for your scar to gape slightly (scar dehiscence) but this is unlikely to cause problems for the mother or the baby. Uterine rupture, however, can be life threatening for the foetus as it puts it at risk of oxygen deprival. This is common in african women as caesarians are not carried out properly, putting the uterus at a higher risk of rupturing. 

3.04.2015

Acupuncture



Use in Ancient Society:

The understanding of how acupuncture works has evolved with its practice, but the descriptions set down a thousand years ago have largely been retained. The dominant function of acupuncture is to regulate the circulation of qi (vital energy) and blood. Approximately 2,000 years ago, the pre-eminent acupuncture text, Huangdi Neijing (Yellow Emperor's Classic on Internal Medicine), was written. In it, acupuncture was described as a means of letting out excess qi or blood by making holes in the body along certain pathways, called jingluo (meridians). For some of these meridians, it was advised to acupuncture in such a way as to let out the blood but not the qi; for others, to let out the qi, but not the blood. Many diseases were thought to enter the body through the skin, and then penetrate inward through muscle, internal organs, and, if not cured in timely fashion, to the marrow of the bone. By inserting a needle to the appropriate depth-to correspond with the degree of disease penetration-the disease could be let out.



In ancient Chinese civilisations individual cells could not be viewed under an electron microscope, and disease did not have the intricate explanation it has today. Illness and wellbeing was hugely related to the external world as the internal workings were yet to be explained. Therefore, most theories were related to the visible world; One of the critical aspects of nature for humans living a thousand years ago, when Chinese civilisation was well developed, was the system of water courses, which included tiny streams, huge rivers, man-made canals and the ocean. It was envisioned that the body had a similar system of moving, life-giving fluid. Acupuncture evolved from letting something out the body to regulating the internal dynamics of the human body. Because the internal flow of qi through the body could be blocked like a stream. If one goes to the point of blockage and clears it away, then the stream can resume its natural course. In a like manner, if the passage of qi becomes blocked then the body becomes disordered. 
One can resume the natural flow by cutting a small hole or crevice in the blockage, which can clear the entire path, because the force of the fluid penetrating the hole will widen it continuously until the normal flow is restored. This is the foundations of acupuncture; a small needle is inserted into the blocked region.
There are certain points on the human body which have a significant impact on the flow of fluid, so these are used to treat 'blockages'. Although this description of the basic acupuncture concept is somewhat simplified, it conveys the approach that is taught today to students of traditional acupuncture: locate the areas of disturbance, isolate the main blockage points, and clear the blockage. Not only does the site of the blockage have an affect, but the depth, direction and chemical composition of the needle influence the result of procedures. 
Not only are blockages treated but also a surplus of qi flow can be rectified using acupuncture: tonifying, draining and transference methods. Ultimately, all the descriptions of acupuncture that are based on the traditional model involve rectifying a disturbance in the flow of qi. If the qi circulation is corrected, the body can eliminate most symptoms and eventually-with proper diet, exercise, and other habits-overcome virtually all disease.

Use in Modern Society:

When the human body was finally described in terms of cells, biochemicals, and specific structures (most of this accomplished less than 150 years ago), the Chinese method of acupuncture and its underlying concepts were evaluated in these new terms. From the modern perspective, diseases and injuries are resolved by a complex set of responses; the responses are coordinated by several signalling systems. The signalling systems mainly involve peptides and other small biochemicals that are released at one site, travel to other sites, interact with cells, and stimulate various biologically programmed responses. Rather than blockages of circulation described in the old Chinese dogma, diseases are understood to be caused by microorganisms, metabolic failures, changes in DNA structure or signalling, or breakdown of the immune system. Some of these disorders are resolved by the cellular functions that are designed for healing, while others become chronic diseases because the pathological factors involved have either defeated the body's normalising mechanisms or because something else has weakened the body's responses to the point that they are ineffective.

Modern studies have revealed that acupuncture stimulates one or more of the signalling systems, which can increase the rate of healing. This response from the body, may be sufficient enough to cure a disease or only reduce some of symptoms. According the current understanding, the primary signalling system affected by acupuncture is the nervous system, which not only transmits signals but also secretes biochemicals which have effects on other cells in the body. The nervous system is connected to the hormonal system, via the adrenal gland, and makes connections to every cell and system in the body. 

According to this interpretation, acupuncture is seen as a stimulus directed to certain responsive parts of the nervous system, producing the needling sensation and setting off a biochemical cascade which enhances healing. Some acupuncture points are very frequently used and their applications are quite varied: needling at these points may stimulate a "global" healing response that can affect many diseases. Other points have only limited applications; needling at those points may affect only one of the signalling systems. It is common for acupuncturists to combine the broad-spectrum points and the specific points for each treatment.

During this modern period (since the 1970s) an increasing number of ways to stimulate the healing response at various body points have been advocated, confirming that needling is not a unique method (the idea that the needle would produce a hole through which pathogenic forces could escape has long been fading). In the past, the main procedures for affecting acupuncture points were needling and application of heat (moxibustion). Now, there is increasing reliance on electrical stimulation (with or without needling), and laser stimulation. Since the basic idea of acupuncture therapy is gaining popularity throughout the world while the practice of needling is restricted to certain health professions and is not always convenient, other methods are also becoming widely used. Lay persons and practitioners with limited training are applying finger pressure (acupressure), tiny metal balls held to the to the skin by tape, magnets (with or without tiny needles attached), piezoelectric stimulus (a brief electric discharge), and low energy electrical pulsing (such as the TENS unit provides with electrical stimulus applied to the skin surface by taped electrodes). Some of these methods may have limited effectiveness, but it appears that if an appropriate body site is stimulated properly, then the healing response is generated.

Subsequently, we can conclude that although we have developed a valid explanation for the effectiveness of acupuncture, and come far since describing disease in terms of simple blockages, we still cease to find an alternative to acupuncture and many other unique Ancient Chinese treatments. In my opinion western societies have an extreme arrogance and many refuse to accept the extraordinary techniques of those developed in eastern civilisations. In another post I will compare medical treatments in the east and west. However, for purposes here I include America and western Europe in the west and, because of similarities between Buddhist and Confucian philosophy, India is included in the East with China and the east Asian countries. 

3.01.2015

Brain Disorders and Diseases


Brain Disorders and Diseases: The Ins and the Outs



Every animal you can think of- birds, amphibians, reptiles, fish, mammals- has a brain. However, the human brain is unique, it gives us the power to imagine, communicate, problem solve and acknowledge the environment around us in unbelievable depth.

The brain performs many significant tasks, including the following:

  • It controls body temperature, blood pressure, heart rate and breathing.
  • It accepts and translates constant information, from your senses, about the world around you.
  • It controls your physical movement
  • It lets you think, dream, reason and experience emotions

All of these tasks are co-ordinated, controlled and regulated by an organ about the size of a head of broccoli. 

The complexity and importance of this organ is seen in the fact that neurological diseases are some of the most deadly and least explained disorders. 

Most brain disorders are related to age-related brain decline. Many neuroscientists believe that the regions of the brain that develop first are the ones that are lost during the normal stages of ageing. However, many researchers have also proposed the reciprocal of this theory; that the brain regions that develop late may be the first to deteriorate. We can link age with deterioration by comparing regions that deteriorate due to age, with regions associated with diseases such as Schizophrenia and Alzheimers.  Researchers have conducted statistical analyses to identify the regions that overlap.

Researchers came to the conclusion: “This network of brain regions not only showed mirroring of healthy developmental and aging processes, but also demonstrated heightened vulnerability to etiologically distinct clinical disorders linked to abnormal adolescent and aging trajectories (schizophrenia and Alzheimer’s disease) and recapitulated the pattern of macrostructural abnormalities seen in both disorders.” - http://www.neurologytimes.com/alzheimer-disease/brain-aging-development-and-disease-explained

Alzheimers

In terms of brain diseases, Alzheimers is everest: Alzheimer's disease is a neurological disorder in which the death of brain cells causes memory loss and cognitive decline. A neurodegenerative type of dementia, the disease starts mild and gets progressively worse. 

Alzheimers is defined as: 











Just over a tenth of people aged over age 65, have the disease in the US. In the over 85 region the percentage goes up to about a third of people suffering with the disease. Although there are many types of dementia Alzheimers is the leading cause of memory loss and cognitive decline. Also, the Alzheimers Association says it accounts for 60-80% of all cases of dementia.



What are the causes? 

Like all types of dementia, Alzheimers is caused by brain cell death. It is a neurodegenerative disease which means that there is progressive brain cell death over time. The total brain size shrinks with Alzheimers as there is a decline in the number of nerve cells and connections. Additionally, accumulation of protein between dying cells and brain neurones, called plaques and tangles, can cause disruptions in brain activity.


Symptoms?

  • Difficulty eating or swallowing (dysphagia)
  • Difficulty moving around or changing position without assistance 
  • Considerable weight loss
  • Urinary and bowel incontinence
  • Gradual loss of speech
  • Significant problems with short-term and long-term memory
Treatments?

There are no drug treatments available which can provide a cure for Alzheimers disease. However, medicines have been developed which can symptoms or temporarily slow down the progression.

ALS

Another disease which stands out to me in the category of neurological diseases is ALS. 
Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS), often referred to as "Lou Gehrig's Disease," is a progressive neurodegenerative disease that affects nerve cells in the brain and the spinal cord. Motor neurones carry impulses from the brain to spinal cord and from the spinal cord to the muscles. 

The progressive degeneration of the motor neurones, in ALS, eventually leads to their death. When the motor neurones die the ability for the brain to initiate and control muscle movement is lost. With voluntary muscle action progressively affected, patients in the later stages of the disease can become totally paralysed.

As motor neurones degenerate they can no longer send impulses to the muscle fibres, this can result in the muscles becoming progressively weaker and wearing away.

What are the causes?


Researchers are studying numerous possible causes of ALS, including:
  • Gene mutation can lead to inherent ALS
  • Chemical imbalance- higher levels of glutamate, a chemical messenger in the brain, can accumulate in nerve cells and spinal fluid. Glutamate can be toxic to some nerve cells, if exposed to increased amounts
  • Disorganised immune response can cause a persons immune system to attack their own cells causing damage to nerve cells 
Symptoms?

Early symptoms of ALS often include increasing muscle weakness, especially involving the arms and legs, speech, swallowing or breathing. When muscles no longer receive the messages from the motor neurones that they require to function, the muscles begin to atrophy (become smaller). Limbs begin to look "thinner" as muscle tissue atrophies.

Treatments?


Although the cause of ALS is not completely understood, the recent years have brought a wealth of new scientific understanding regarding the physiology of this disease. While there is not a cure or treatment today that halts or reverses ALS, there is one FDA approved drug, riluzole, that modestly slows the progression of ALS as well as several other drugs in clinical trials that hold promise. Importantly, there are significant devices and therapies that can manage the symptoms of ALS that help people maintain as much independence as possible and prolong survival. 
With neurological diseases it is important to remember they are quite variable diseases; no two people will have the same journey or experiences. 

11.11.2014

Atavism: The Secrets of the Past and the Key to the Future

Atavism: The Secrets of the Past and the Key to the Future
Meaning the return of ancestral features to an organism, this word has only recently appeared in my vocabulary. I came across it whilst reading Robert Winston’s ‘The Human Mind’, in which he was describing Cesare Lombroso’s work. The sentence read ‘He compared these with the skulls of non-human primates and came to the view that criminals were ‘throwbacks’ – the consequence of atavism.’ Now, being a fifteen year old, secondary school student, I haven’t studied evolution in that depth let alone Atavism itself, so understandably I was not aware of what it was. Therefore I took it upon myself to research the term in order to gain a better understanding of what Winston was referring to.

Upon researching Atavism, I found that I was finding it increasingly interesting and that, not only had I learnt a new word but also that, Atavism had lead me on to reading articles about topics such as Phylogenetic ideas, Ontogeny and The Recapitulation Theories. All being rather interesting topics, I decided I would write about Atavism. I understand that I will probably not be able to give the most intellectual response; however it was something I wanted to do.
Living in a social community where being different is now considered a positive thing, I was not surprised to see the flashes of pig-like-tails and hair-covered-humans when I searched Atavism. When in modern day, you can be famous for almost anything, it wasn't the first time I had seen images of this nature, however I wasn't seeing these images purely for entertainment.  As I previously said, I wanted to learn about what Atavism was. Consequently, I began to see these images as not the odd deformities that appear on the pages of the Guinness Book of World Records, but instead as what they truly were, an anomaly in human evolution.  Atavism is a backtrack, a reverse, an anti – progression, an oddity. However for the exact definition, the Oxford English Dictionary states the following:
  •         The reappearance of a characteristic in an organism after several generations of absence, usually caused by the chance recombination of genes.
  •         An individual or a part that exhibits Atavism. Also called a throwback.
  •        The return of a trait or recurrence of previous behaviour after a period of absence.


I personally think that this depicts Atavism perfectly. It tells you with a limited amount of words exactly what it is. However the only disadvantage of definitions is that they never tell you why. Yes, it briefly mentions the fact that Atavism is usually caused by the chance recombination of genes however it doesn’t say why these genes, that haven’t been used in so long, suddenly reappear. Even though there will always be an element of them within the organism, surely with these genes being so old, and ‘faint’, there would be a considerably larger amount of dominant genes, in which case this ancient gene would be discarded.

Yet it seems as though this is not the case, as we obviously do have these ‘Ancient Genes’ coming through. In Homo sapiens, it is most commonly present as an extra nipple or a tail like feature around the bottom of the back. Although absurd, they do make some form of sense. These were both features that an ancestor of modern man once had. When it comes down to it, without these features, we wouldn't be what we are today because somewhere along the line we will have had to evolve and adapt to different situations in which we may have not needed a tail anymore. However depending on the time in which this change occurred will have affected the rest of man’s evolution, therefore it is a factor that leads us to where we are today. Just like in hundreds of thousands of years’ time, our modern day human, will just be another drawn out figure in a long line of ape like beings on an evolutionary graph.

Now this idea of the evolutionary graph is normally portrayed as a horizontal timeline, similar to the image featured on the right. Defined as the infamous ‘March of Progress’, it shows the slow progression of man getting taller, the forehead becoming increasingly vertical, and the gradual transformation of posture. It depicts the natural appearance, or so what we have presumed was the natural appearance of our ancestors.

 However, I think that a good way in which to portray Human evolution is by the following diagram, as you can see, it is not completed in great detail however it shows that man hasn't just evolved as one organism, with the species evolving and changing as one, but the more realistic idea of natural selection. The process in which a species can coexist with its phenotype (polymorph) preceding the eventual fate that one will be gradually pushed to the breaches of extinction.


This brings me back to the initial point of interest – Atavism. With the ancestors of man developing in different ways, it means that they will begin to have different features; one phenotype may have lost a feature, for example, a tail whilst gaining new features such as opposable thumbs. Obviously this would have happened over the time period of millions of years; however it does show a possible theory of how we have grown apart from the ape like being we once resembled. Below is featured an example of a polymorph.




With a recombination of genes occurring within an organism, it is using a similar genetic formation as one that has pre – existed in our ancestors. So when an Atavism does occur, it would be interesting to see how the genes changed. By looking at how the genetical structure of our ancestors, through modern day Atavisms, we may be able to understand how we have changed and possibly why this has happened. If we were able to claim that information, a question I would be asking is, if we look at the changes of the past can we predict our future? Will we be able to genetically modify man in order to develop at a quicker rate? What will the ethical voice of reason say in response to this idea of genetically modifying?


When thinking about the future of man, it leads me into thought processes of whether or not Atavism should be thought of negatively; perhaps it is just the next step of human evolution. Will we develop to attain features of animals? I know the next statement is possibly slightly shallow; however it does raise an interesting thought. In ‘The Amazing Spider Man’ (2012), the idea of genetic coding is effectively what the film is about. It’s suggesting the idea of taking combinations of genes from animals that have certain features in order to enhance the human body. For example the film focuses on the ability to regenerate limbs. Now, I’m not saying that we should base all our scientific theories on the Spiderman Films however I do think that it is an interesting thought.

If we were to be able to incorporate features like regeneration of the body into humans, we could become extremely powerful beings. This isn't necessarily a good thing. We have already manipulated the world, to accustom our needs however this would be the next step. Although, genetic coding could be used for very sinister reasons, it could also provide incredible medical enhancements throughout the world. If we were able to grasp the control of abilities to regenerate or of immunity, it may help us find a solution in terms of curing diseases such as leprosy.

Relating back to Atavism, the idea that we start to take on the appearance of our ancestors isn't the only aspect of it.  It also includes throwbacks in our behaviourisms. For example, individuals who demonstrate violent, dominant and primitive behaviour are likely to have a mental throwback. In which characteristics reform and produce members of society that according to Cesare Lombroso are more likely to be capable of participating in criminal activity. He linked this to their appearance, saying that men who had wider faces, a more sloped forehead and larger ears, were more likely to be convicted for criminal behaviour. This is not to say that all mean with appearances that follow this pattern are hard-core criminals. It was merely a generalisation from data.

Forming a conclusion, I have learnt many a thing throughout this little exploration into the world of Atavism. Although this is only my opinion I think that Atavism is a wondrous thing. It could really help us in the future and has given me an insight into the world of genetics. It may be difficult for the people who possess these Atavisms however, I do think of them as extremely interesting. I shall leave you with a quote that I thought was rather thought provoking.

"What is happening is not random - it’s not cells running amok. It’s cells following an ancient program." - Paul Davies

For more information on this fascinating topic please look at:

Lauren Frame  -  29th October 2013

11.01.2014

Cholesterol: The Good, The Bad and The Ugly.

Cholesterol: The Good, The Bad and The Ugly


Cholesterol is a compound found in most body tissues. It is an essential substance due to its role in the cell membrane, bile acids and the production of vitamin D and hormones. Cholesterol can't dissolve in your blood which means it is transported in your bloodstream by carrier proteins, called lipoproteins. There are two types of lipoproteins that carry cholesterol: High-density lipoproteins (HDL) and Low-density lipoproteins (LDL). 


Cholesterol is vital. It is essential to every cell in the body and thus involved in the reproductive system, brain activity, movement of muscles, structure of bones and subsequently without cholesterol we would cease to exist. This is why our bodies make it, the chemical formula is C27H46O. There is no good or bad version of this formula. Due to cholesterols non-polar hydrocarbon tail, it is not water soluble- which is why it can not be transported by the blood but is carried by lipoproteins. 


You are all no doubt aware of the popular hypothesis on the relationship between cholesterol and heart disease. Lipoproteins which carry cholesterol- like mentioned earlier- are categorised: LDLs carry cholesterol from the liver to other cells, where it is needed; HDLs carry 'recycled' or excess cholesterol back to the liver to be transported out the body. Both have important purposes, yet they have been separated into "Good" and "Bad" . In the words of good and bad, LDL is the bad one as it collects in the walls of blood vessels, causing the blockages of arteriosclerosis. However, none of this is true. In the Framingham Heart Study, it was shown that intake of cholesterol has no correlation with heart disease. In figure 1 you can see that men and women with above average cholesterol levels had nearly identical rates of heart disease as people with average cholesterol levels. 



Fig. 1
The man responsible for the "diet-heart hypothesis", Ancel Keys, based the ideas on early experiments with chickens and rabbits. However, due to chickens and rabbits being vegetarian, their physiology is not adapted to handling large amounts of cholesterol. But, we can not apply this information to humans (omnivores with significant differences in physiology). After a life time of research he realised this:

“Cholesterol in food has no impact on cholesterol in the blood and we’ve known that all along.” Ancel Keys.


Though it is still accepted as gospel truth by the general public and many medical professionals, most researchers and the scientific community now believe the primary causes of heart disease are inflammation and stress. If cholesterol did cause heart disease, all genders, races and ages would be affected as it is a natural substance in all people. However, this is not true. A recent study at the  Conference on Low Blood Cholesterol, showed women are 300% less likely to suffer from heart disease than men, despite having higher average cholesterol levels. Heart disease and most other terminal illnesses are brought about by ageing, life style choices and extreme dietary factors.



Cholesterol is commonly associated with high sugar diets. However, the logic behind this has been reversed. The disadvantages with a diet full of carbohydrates is not the fact it increases cholesterol but the fact sugar is later stored as fat, which can have long term complications. Do not think of cholesterol as something you should avoid from your food, as your liver produces it constantly. If you consume extra cholesterol, from food like eggs and meat, your body will only absorb it if it is needed. The cells lining the small intestine contain transporter molecules that absorb cholesterol. However, if your body does not require any more, there is another molecule that pumps the cholesterol back into the intestine to be eliminated. 

The reason sugar is linked with cholesterol is due to LDL being oxidised and carbohydrates causing oxidation. When LDLs are oxidised they can become small and dense which can be linked with heart disease. Additionally, when our diets include too much carbohydrates, blood insulin levels spike. As a result the bodies cells are told to produce more cholesterol. The build up in blood vessels, which cause heart disease, are not due to the intake of excess cholesterol but the affect sugar has on cholesterol and other substances in our body. So high cholesterol levels are usually achieved due to high 'carb' diets, not from foods that are high in fat and cholesterol. Therefore, by avoiding excess carbohydrates, we can avoid cardiac complications. 


Statins are drugs used to inhibit the production of cholesterol, in attempt to treat heart disease. They work due to having an anti-inflammatory affect, the fact they stop the body from producing a vital substance is an unfortunate side affect. If we reduce cholesterol, we are slowing all the vital processes in the body. One in 500 people have cholesterol levels which are too high, and this drug could be helpful for them. But, the majority of people are inhibiting the production of a substance involved in all life processes. 


Cardiology researchers are now turning away from the notion that saturated fat and cholesterol cause heart disease. After all, how could substances that we have been eating for thousands of years cause heart disease, which is a relatively new phenomenon? Cardiologists are finding instead that refined carbohydrates, which we have only been eating in significant quantities for about 100 years, are the most important dietary factor at the root of heart disease.  


So there you have it. Contrary to popular belief, cholesterol is not a dangerous poison that causes heart disease. Rather, it is an essential nutrient present in the cell membranes of all tissues of all mammals, and has some very important functions in the body. In fact, in many studies, low cholesterol has been associated with a reduced life span. 

The body makes cholesterol, there are a lot of things we need to worry about, but our body trying to kill us is not one of them!